Ion Mobility as Explosive Detector

Ion Mobility as explosive DetectorINTRODUCTIONExplosives atomic number 18 exceedingly reactive substances which possess large amount of energy (potential energy) that leads to the production of explosions, they argon usually accomplish with lighten, heat, sound and pressure when they argon suddenly released. Explosive can be classified found on their sensibility, velocity, composition and sensual forms 23.Ion Mobility Spectrometry is an uninflected technique which is wide acknowledge in the knowledge domain of perception of explosives as a matter of it powerful sensitivity exploitation electrophoresis techniques. The use of IMS as an explosive sensing element is based on the capability of IMS to detect almost any substance which can sustain ionization and ability of detecting lightest element much(prenominal) as helium, to the most complex mixture and in complete organism 26.IMS is apply in the detective work of explosive compounds such as trinitrotoluene (TNT),Dini troluene(DNT),Cyclo-1,3,5-trimethylene-2,4,6,8-tetranitramine(RDX),Pentaerythriol tetranitrate(PETN, Hexafluorobenezene (HFB),TETRYL(2,4,6-Trinitrophenylmethylnitramine), etc. 27.IMS is widely utilize has a powerful analytic technique for espial of unlike explosive warf atomic number 18 chemical agent, trace level of nitro-organic explosives which may be found on hand bags and delight on-luggages 22 in dissimilar circulariseport all around the world, all this has been made possible by the ionization roots used and development in the drift tube materials. close to recently produced IMS are cheap and classy making it possible to carry out analysis on samples without pre-treatment 6.IMS is carried out by al meeking analyte which have put up with ionisation to be separated according to their movement in bollocks up phase 1 .IMS also enable the possibilities of this Ionised analytes to be distinguished use parameters such as their masses, size, shapes and charges and it aid separation and identification of the ionised hint which are in gas phase using their movement in carrier gas 2-4 .In IMS the analytes are converted to ionisable molecule at atmospherical pressure in a weak electric automobile field star(p) to the ions separated according to their movement in the gas phase 5This uninflected measurement techniques of an ion mobility spectrometry to detect explosive involve the use of ion mobility spectrometer which is made up of important component such as ion source, ion introduction drift tube and the detector plate 21.IMS is a techniques mostly used in the aspect of detection of explosive as a result of the technique being able to easily detect object by the possibility of screening individuals who great power have concealed explosive a major employment in monitoring of site which might be contaminated with explosive substances or materials also including buried land milliliter which might have explosive 7.IMS can detect explosives material s even if it is in small amount or large quantities and used in venture offices for the detections of dangerous substances which might be present in mails 8.IMS have been used in the detection of min-explosive devices and expose charges in order to show individuals which might have come in contact with explosive based on the great analytical abilities to detect explosive in limited time, blue sensitivity, and resolution power 10.The use IMS has a major detector of explosives, factors such as it been easy to use, low cost of production and maintenance , portability, and low level of detection limits are considered and the ability to hyphenate IMS with other analytical method such as GC,LC and MS so as to ameliorate it sensitivity have been involved as slipway of improving the technique and it detection, and most of this analysis are done in seconds 26.The aim of this question on IMS as an explosive Detector includes the principles, instrumentations, application, innovation of I MS based on limitation from the first invention to the recent years and possible ways of improving IMS for future application in detection of explosives.HISTORYIn 1985,JUNE 23,the Canadian organisation initiated a trace detector which was as a result of the carpenters plane crash that killed 329 people blown up at 31000 feet at the Atlantic ocean, although in 1987 the government developed a high speed detector that use ion mobility spectrometry to detect explosives14.Ims has been a major technique of following especially in the Detection of Explosive based on the high selectivity and Sensitivity with good resolution of the techniques in the detection of explosive without the sample to be detect undergoing any form of Pre-treatment or pre separation (textbook 23).It major use of interest have cast upd as a result of terrorism in various aviation sectors .In Ims ionisation occurs in gas phase chemistry of explosives in the air which reserve part-per-billion(ppb) detection limit f or explosive such as nitro-organic explosive15-18 i.e 77-80 of textbook.establish on the increase in terrorism and crime rate two ion mobility spectrometers were discovered to do possible quick, non-invasive screening and this two models are 400 IONSCAN which was from Barringer Research special but now called Smith Detection81 of textbook and Itemizer which was produced from Ion track ,Inc. also now regarded as GE Interlogix. As a result of this two Models a newfound interest has been given to IMS and it has been accepted as a technique in analytical measurement 19.The disco really of IMS became a major point of interest from the formation of ion and the behaviours of this ion when they are in the gas phase at ambient pressure. Researches on IMS were can be divided into two major periods which are the period IMS was discovered and Innovated(1850-1938) also the period IMS was foundational studied (1948-1970)28.The development of Ion mobility for the detection of explosive have bee n improved after the initial design which was depict by Eiceman et al 20 in which the experiment were performed with pulse laser ionization (266nm.8nsec pulse ) as the source the use of naphthalene and anthracene as high vaporisation pressure organic compounds21.furtherly, same compounds were also studied another source of ionisation called 63Ni which are currently used in explosive detection1.optimisation of ion mobility in achieving detection of ng for explosive so as to improve sensitivity by improving temperature of the spectrometer cell, high voltage pulse, applied electric field with appropriate resolution in order to obtain distinct features for various explosive species were carried out on the geometry spectrometer21.Ion mobility spectrometry as also involved the use of various ionisation source such as electro-spray ionisation46, thermal ionisation, corona spray and corona discharge ionisation47,48,MALDI laser ionisation 48. Based on the aspect of the high voltage (dc an d pulsed) provided only very small current (Researches also have shown the discovered of how IMS has been used in the detection of various explosives 22 after the incident in 1985, JUNE 23, when the Canadian government initiated a trace detector which was as a result of the airplane crash that killed 329 people blown up at 31000 feet at the Atlantic ocean, although in 1987 the government developed a high speed detector that use ion mobility spectrometry to detect explosives 14.There is also an increase in the emergence of IMS over the past few years and till current appointment which shows interest in the technique and in its development 29 Table 1 history in the Development on IMS2.3 Application Area of ion mobilityBased on the development in ims is the ability to couple ims with other analytical techniques inorder to improve it detection ability The use of IMS as a detection can be for explosive such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene(TNT) ,2,4-Dihydro-5-nitro-3H-1,2,4-triazol-3-one (NTO), Pentaerythritol Tetrenitrate (PETN) which are detected at in positive polarity in air at temperature of 150 to 250 degrees12.Cases where the it required to resolve explosive compounds that are easy in the presence of Interferents ,IMS is regarded as a valuable technique when bring together with Gas chromatography13. IMS aid in the classification of explosive compounds which is usually by the use of Laser ION Mobility Spectrometry and the process is usually done with the dispatch of the ion with Photo-ionised Naphthalene in ambient air and the wavelength of the laser is usually fixed(266nm).Common explosive are GE ,vapour TRACERS ,Smith Sabre 4000 and Russian built M0-2M and M0-8 although companies are coming up with non-radioactive ionisation procedures for IMS in the detection of explosive trace for instances Bruker DE-detector including implant workQS-B220 which can be referred to as the next Innovation of IMS9.PRINCIPLE OF IMS IN DETECTION OF EXPLOSIVESTHE DIAGRAM OF IMS 45

Empowering Patients With Chronic Illnesses Diabetes Sufferer Nursing Essay

Empowering Patients With Chronic Illnesses Diabetes Sufferer Nursing EssayFor this subsidization I give up chosen to social function the diabetes boldness study. I leave behind abide by NMC code of demeanour at all times and remain professional in my approach.Empowerment is a multidimensional shit applic sufficient to individuals, organizations, and neighbourhoods (Rappaport, 1987). It is viewed as a construct rather than a belief because it is non flatly observable (Jacox, 1974).The cutting study depicts that Patrick lacks both ego program line and de place power in his forethought of his diabetes. Individuals with bulky-term forms argon challenged by often persistent and disruptive wellness problems that have cognitive, br differently and emotional repercussions (Larsen Lubkin, 2009). Established methods of treating pile with long turn backs ar ground on the assumption that prescriptive instruction by expert health professionals leave guide the users beha viour, thereby usefully managing their condition. However, frequent non-adherence to health care advice (Zimmerer et al, 2009) and tribulation to achieve behaviour change through education programmes alone (Gibson et al, 2001) indicate that this approach is often unsuccessful. Self-management programmes typically incorporate development of action plans and instruction in the skills required to implement such action (Lorig Holman, 2004). Collaboration amid the professional and the individual with the long-term condition is required to plug that advice is non only nominated but personalised in accordance with the individuals needs and preferences (Bodenheimer et al, 2002). In April 2009 the Department of Health released a guide on Self Management.It detail the Four Pillar approach,firstly Information, a more informed patient layabout make better decisions about his or her handling, secondly skills and training, providing the patient with the skills undeniable to take care of their condition better, thirdly barbs and devices aiming to equip the person with the sum to control their condition, and finally the all important assert networks, giving the person a sense of relatement in their care and the ability to go by all fears around their disease.Whilst on my partnership placement I was introduced to an possible action that is utilise deep down a local PCT in Birmingham. It is called the Diabetes manual (Burden Burden, Heart of Birmingham PCT). It is a al-Quranlet/log book which is abandoned to each newly diagnosed diabetic. It aims to enlighten and inform patients on their diabetes and how best to control it. It elaborate some/ intimately of the complications/side effects that come with having a long time condition such as diabetes. Its main aim is to educate patients through simplified terms and pictures. The integrated log book is use by patients to write down how they manage their diabetes on a mean solar solar day to day basis. One reveal area of this booklet is the action grooming page. The book also incorporates invest/goal setting for Patrick. On initial interview with Patrick we would aim to introduce him to the booklet and discuss with him, firstly the win of using this book, allowing him to egotism manage his condition and to better understand the implications of a long term condition such as Diabetes. It is important to experience that Patrick is literate as this plan go away not succeed if this is not so. Goal-setting for the first few weeks would be to aim to maintain contrast sugars at a mutually agreed safe level.It would be unreasonable to necessitate too much of Patrick within the first few weeks and although it is important for his health that goals are reached we would aim to gradually introduce more aims as Patrick got used to effectively self managing his condition. This integrated logbook and information guide addresses at least(prenominal) two of the four pillars of Self Manag ement (DoH 2009). Information contained in the book will allow Patrick to read and digest at his own leisure, bombarding a patient with information during an interview sewer often cause them to swerve and switch off from the information giver.It also acts as a tool or device by which Patrick can write down his day to day life in the knowledge that it whitethorn be the key to haughty his blood sugar levels if he keeps an accurate food diary. This curtain raising relies heavily of the theory of Self Efficacy as detailed by Bandura (1977). He stated that people can be characterised primarily on the basis of their beliefs in their ability to control their lives, because those beliefs powerfully determine the struggle they make to adapt to their surroundings. Self-efficacy theory predicts that the more an individual feels capable of predicting and controlling threatening events, the less vulnerable he or she will be to anxiety or stress disorders in response to traumatic experiences . accordingly if Patrick believes he holds the key to controlling his diabetes, he will endeavour to cast off plans into action to reduce his blood sugar levels, come to terms with his condition and prevent further complications associated with his Diabetes.The self-management approach views the individual as an active federal agent in treatment. The purpose of self-management is to nurture skills such as behavioural management techniques and to moderate informed decision making and problem solving, thereby arming the individual with the necessary expertise to manage their condition.This person-centred approach focuses on personalisation of treatment and facilitation of independence, allowing Patrick to continue day to day routine as normal without any forbearance on his life. It has been described as a patient-centred approach based on respect and compassion and has an emphasis on collaboration with patients (including cooperative goal-setting), self-management skills and ps ychosocial issues. Nurses would play a pivotal role in providing advice, guidance, education and support to Patrick . Self-management is important as it not only benefits the patient, but also provides wider opportunities for community and specialist wet-nurses to use and develop their clinical and interpersonal skills.It was highlighted in the case study that Patrick has started to develop Retinopathy. Diabetic Retinopathy is a vascular condition in which the retinal capillaries tend to degenerate after a number of years. The condition is characterised by ocular haemorrhages, lipid exudate and the growth of new blood vessels and connective tissue. This has resulted in abject eyesight which could try problematic if not dealt with soon to prevent blindness. Patrick currently works as a wad driver so his eyesight is really important to him to be able to continue to work and provide financially for his family. Diabetes-related complications can have a major affect on the individua l and family members, and are costly to the patient. thither are a number of eye conditions specifically associated with diabetes. These include unpredictable disturbances in lens shape, related to hyperglycaemia and often seen at diagnosis, and cataracts, including the rarified sugar cataract only seen in people with diabetes. However, DR is likely to affect most people with diabetes as the duration of their condition improvers (Williams and Pickup 1999). DR is one of the long-term micro vascular complications of diabetes mellitus and is the leading cause of blindness in the workings population of the UK (BDA 1995).Ninety per cent of people with type 1 diabetes have some degree of DR within 20 years of diagnosis and it has been suggested that it is position at diagnosis in 40 per cent of those with type 2 diabetes (Cummings 2002). A survey has found that blindness was the most well cognise complication of diabetes (Diabetes UK 2000). However the future for Patrick does not ha ve to as dull as it sounds. The theme Service Framework for Diabetes (DoH 2001) recommends early and regular test for all diabetics.Developing a plan of action/care for Patrick should have with a thorough nursing assessment which is essential to visualize that a correct diagnosis regarding diabetic Retinopathy is made. Patrick may complain initially of the signs of glazed haemorrhage such as floaters, which look like small, black insects, or a lacy curtain across the field of vision. Macular involvement may be revealed by the patients description of a cosmopolitan deterioration in fine and colour vision that is not improved by habiliment a range of spectacles. The main aim of screening for diabetic Retinopathy is to appoint patients with sight-threatening Retinopathy who may require preventive treatment. Screening and treatment for diabetic Retinopathy will not eliminate all cases of sight loss, but can be important in minimising the number of patients with sight loss as a r esult of this condition. The aim of a retinal screening programme is to reassure that a yearly examination of all patients in a given area is performed (Walker and Rodgers 2002). This assessment should be done prior to a direct and rapid referral to an Ophthalmologist to screen and evaluate the degree of Retinopathy. As a preventive strategy, health education should include the best available inquiry evidence to assist patients to make decisions about lifestyle changes and gain control over their condition (Watkinson and Chetram 2005).Micro vascular complications may be prevented or onset delayed with good medical treatment (Kanski 2007). The nurse should involve Patrick and with permission the family to identify areas such as diet and alcohol use that can be modified to provide better and tighter glycaemic control. Levels of blood glucose are set at preferably beneath HbA1c 6.5-7.5% according to the individuals target (NICE 2005). Patricks is 9.9% which puts him in the danger z one for developing complications and increasing his risk of irreversible damage. The target is based on the risk of macro vascular and micro vascular complications. Individuals with type 2 diabetes need to have an ongoing structured valuation every two to six months, to assess the risk factor. A drop-off in the prevalence of diabetic Retinopathy is associated with tighter blood glucose control (Younis et al 2002).By involving the whole family in this change in lifestyle will prove to Patrick he is not on his own and offer him support. Using the curtain raising I discussed early in this assignment the log book/information guide offers helpful advice for diet and lifestyle change. Setting Patrick some happy goals/challenges will allow him to maintain his control of his own body and step-up compliance. The target is to reduce his HbA1c to within the acceptable target range discussed above. A significant lifestyle change is needed but must be done with concordance with Patrick and his family. It is noted that Patrick is overweight with a BMI of 29.5. This can increase his risk of hypertension, which itself is a factor in Retinopathy as it increases the pressure within the eye. Effective blood pressure management is as significant as blood glucose control in reducing the risk of progression of diabetic Retinopathy in those with type 2 diabetes (UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group 2004). heavy blood pressure control is considered to be at or below 140/80mmHg (NICE 2005).Adherence to prescribed anti hypertensive treatment is bouncy as diabetic patients with hypertension have a poor visual prognosis (NICE 2005). A consultation with Patricks GP should be arranged to mold if there is any hypertension and if found it has been shown that ACE inhibitors prove very effective in the reduction of high blood pressure in Diabetics.(NICE 2005).There are new schemes devised by the Department of Health to reduce the use of medication in weight loss and to increase exercis e in the population. Free weigh loss classes are offered to patients who meet the criteria. Patrick would benefit from these schemes. medicinal drug management and strict concordance with the regime is incredibly important to ensure Patrick maintains a level of the drugs in his body. If it is adhered to it may be that he will not have to take insulin.By providing ongoing psychological support to Patrick and to his family the nurse can help the patient to maintain his or her self-conceit and improve self-management of the condition. Visual impairment in patients with diabetes is often compounded by the loss of self-management skills, which may have psychosocial implications (Hall and Waterman 1997). Reactions to visual loss can also lead to psychological distress such as depression, dangerous thoughts and anxiety (Hall and Waterman 1997). It is therefore the nurses duty to discuss these issues with the patient and relatives and provide appropriate support (Nursing and Midwifery Co uncil (NMC) 2004). Organisations such as Diabetes UK and the Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB) can also provide ongoing help and support. Regular screening and repeat follow ups should ensure Patricks Retinopathy does not continue to worsen.Nearly two decades ago Fielding and Llewellyn (1987) pointed out that effective nurse-patient communication was central to the quality of care that patients received, stating rather poignantly that intercourse is both one of the most demanding and difficult aspects of a nurses job, and one which is often avoided or done badly although central to the quality of patient care.Encouraging people to change their attitude towards a health issue is an important part of any health education programme, but peoples values can be particularly resistant to change. Even when clients are persuaded to change their attitude (for modelling towards diet, smoking, safer sex) it is often frustrating for nurses to realise that this may not lead to a change in their behaviour. An understanding of the Gordian relationship between a persons knowledge, attitude and behaviour can assist health professionals in realising wherefore clients may continue to behave in a certain way, scorn health advice to the contrary. Persuasive communication theory offers specific techniques that can be used successfully within health promotion. It is important for the nurse to get wind to Patricks concerns and endeavour to offer counsel or help.I have act to prove in this assignment that communication with Patrick and his family is of the utmost importance to ensure concordance and thus improve his control of his condition. By educating both parties it shows Patrick that he is not alone and he can gain support from his family and other networks accessible to him such as local support groups.It has been mentioned in the case study that Patrick drives a bus and as a result of his poor control of his Diabetes, he has been falling asleep at the wheel . This provides the nurse with a significant ethical dilemma. Bound by the NMC professional code of conduct means nurses are restricted to what information they can release.A abash feature of ethics can be its association with apparently complex theories such as utilitarianism (the moral value of an action is determined by its overall benefit) and de-ontologyy (concerned with adhering to moral rules or moral duty rather than with the consequences of actions) (Beauchamp and Childress 2001). These schematic theories are important components of ethics and can help to guide decisions. The general principles of Ethics are that of Avoiding Harm and moral obligations and duties. As a nurse we have a moral obligation to notify the DVLA as it is in the public best interest to prevent harm coming to others if Patrick move asleep at the wheel, thus avoiding harm to others.In this assignment I have endeavoured to show that the key to controlling Patricks Diabetes is through effective communi cation, self-efficacy/self management and family involvement. By encouraging Patrick to look at his life and die his lifestyle he is on the road to effective self management. transfer is only possible if Patricks attitude towards his condition alters. By offering him the cream of utilising the logbook he can challenge his attitudes with the main aims/challenges of keeping further complications at bay, maintaining tighter glycaemic control and thus lowering his HbA1c.

Disadvantaged Health Status of Indigenous People

separate Health Status of indigenous PeopleWhy be native people in Australia still disadvantaged with regard to health and company services? The status of natal health in contemporary Australia is a result of historic factors as rise as contemporary socio- frugal issues (Hampton Toombs, 2013, p. 1).The lacking(predicate) health stature of indigenous Australians is a contemporary consequence of their historic handling as Australias traditionalistic owners and as of a result of cultural issues that impact on the acceptance of health and community services. This historical treatment and cultural issues has led to endemical Australians experiencing tender disadvantages, signifi batchtly low socio-economic status, dispossession, poverty and powerlessness within contemporary Australian society. Previous to the invasion and colony by the British on January 26, 1788, the indigenous people were the c bers of Australia and the Torres Strait for a period of over 60,000 years. Du ring this time, it is suggested that autochthonous Australians lived relatively prosperous lives and enjoyed generally discover health than most people living in Europe (Hampton Toombs, Indigenous Australian concepts of health and well-being, 2013). Indigenous Australians mortality was greatly affected by the considerable loss of lives caused by the direct conflict with the British and by the arrival of introduced diseases, especially smallpox. The impact of this loss extended far beyond the immediate victims of disease, affecting the very fabric of Indigenous societies through depopulation and affectionate disruption (MacRae, et al., 2012). Traditionally, Indigenous Australians had complete freedom over all move of their lives such as, ceremonies, spiritual practices, medicine, hearty relationships, management of land and law and economic affairs (Saggers Gray, 1991). Along with the impacts of introduced diseases and conflict, Indigenous Australians also experienced harmful cause related to disconnection from Country due to the spread of colonists and their subsequent governmental policies. For an Indigenous Australian, Country is not just physical territory exactly the central aspect of their identity (Hampton Toombs, Racism, colonisation/colonialism and impacts on indigenous people, 2013). cable and colonialism impacted far beyond the physical, as Indigenous Australians had their culture devalued, traditional food sources destroyed, and were separated from their families and in some cases entire communities were expelled. This caused separation or loss of languages, beliefs and social structures which form the primal basis of Indigenous cultures.The underway condition of Indigenous health has been impacted negatively by the stolen generations and former(a) past government practises and for many Indigenous Australians, the ongoing effects wee created other social, emotional and physical disadvantages. These disadvantages are evident through th e social determinants of health, including economic opportunity, physical basis, and social conditions that influence the health of individuals, communities, and societies as a whole. Inequalities in these are especially evident in education, employment, income, housing, access to services, social networks, connection with land, racism, and incarceration rates.In all of these factors, Indigenous Australians experience good lower rates than non-Indigenous Australians, with the most disturbing being that Indigenous Australians grow a drastically lower life expectancy rate and general health status, than non-Indigenous Australians. For indigenous people, the rate of degenerative disease is still 2.5 times higher than that of other Australians and they die 15 to 20 years young than those in mainstream Australia (Australian Health Ministers, 2004). More than half of these figures are caused by chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke, diabetes, chronic respiratory disease an d kidney disease. The legal age of these chronic diseases are preventable and while research is chronic to dumbfound ways to reduce the risk factors, issues such as smoking, alcohol and midpoint abuse, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and promoting thinking(a) eating and active lifestyles are still major(ip) challenges in Indigenous communities throughout Australia.Healthy living choices are not easy for people living in remote communities which results in a high relative incidence of preventable chronic disease. Good nutrition is fundamental to the maintenance of general well-being and the prevention of sickness and disease. It plays an imperative affair in pregnancy and early childhood, prevents obesity and type 2 Diabetes and can lower the risk of recurrent heart disease by up to 70%. However, remote communities face many barriers to healthy eating, including isolation, the high approach of food, the variable supply of fresh food, lack of community town infrastructure and inadequate health promotion support, are just a hardly a(prenominal) of these barriers that prevent community people from being able to make healthy living choicesAll of these inequalities, combined with the social attitudes towards Indigenous Australians and their health in contemporary Australian society, contribute to the difficulties Indigenous Australians have accessing satisfactory healthcare. The preparedness of adequate healthcare for Indigenous Australians can be difficult as many service providers do not understand how Indigenous Australians arrest or understand health and many health services are not as user-friendly or culturally appropriate for Indigenous people as they are for non-Indigenous people. This adds to higher levels of disadvantage and a great hesitance to utilise these services. The traditional Indigenous outlook on health is holistic. It integrates everything significant in a persons life, including land, environment, physical body, community, relation ships, and law. Health is the social, emotional, and cultural well being of the whole community and the concept is therefore linked to the backbone of being an Indigenous Australian.Specific issues such as reducing the incidence of chronic disease requires a significantly greater effort in coordinating collective strengths, creating and delivering preventative programs and primary health care for Indigenous communities and while great work is being done, more efforts are need to reduce the high incidence of chronic disease on Indigenous people and communities. When designing and developing services to meet the needs of our Indigenous people, close collaboration and consultation with the people for whom the service will be provided is vital.It is important to remember that policies and practises of the past have had major adverse impacts on the health of contemporary Indigenous Australians, and these impacts have contributed significantly to the inequalities present in Indigenous a nd non-Indigenous health status. However, whilst health disadvantages experienced by Indigenous Australians are considered to be historical in origin, the perpetuation of the disadvantages relies heavily on contemporary structural and social factors.As a result of our history and because of the continuing disadvantage, our people have needs that differ from those of mainstream Australians. Therefore, it is also imperative that we certify and respect the impact of events and issues in Indigenous peoples history when designing and delivering these services.

Rafflesia Species in Malaysia Identification

Rafflesia Species in Malaysia Identification asylum1.1 BACKGROUND education in that location be a count of singular plant suits in the world which atomic derive 18 on the brink of extinction, or atomic number 18 so extremely curbed in range. For warning the fine manages such(prenominal) as the Talipot Palm (Corypha elata), Johannis teysmannia in Sarawak and Malaya, and a the like genus Livistona in western closely Sumatra. The persistentst flush in the world, Rafflesia arnoldii and related species, be loss to vanish unless to a greater extent(prenominal) nature reserves be created for such rargon plants in Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and the Philippines.Rafflesia is a genus of efflorescenceing plants that is crap irrigate up of 23 cognise species. The best k immediately of these species is Rafflesia arboldii which has the distinction of beingness the worlds largest thrill, deriveing a diam of roughly leash feet. The genus Rafflesia gets its name from Sir Stamford Raffles, the bringer of the British colony of capital of Singapore (Walter et al., 1998).Rafflesia is a unmatched plant because of its symmetrys unlike discordent elevations. This circumstance sacrifices it widely cognize. It is in addition begin an icon for saving especi entirely in all in ally of the rain woods ara. The rarity creates s understands among nature loers, tourists and the general public. The fact that roughly species may be in the brink of extinction alarms saving groups. Its little-known biology and procreative ecology spurs the pastime of botanists and ecologist (Nais, 2004). Rafflesia is withal thought to be mavin of the r arst of all plant genera which is all found in Borneo, Sumatra, Java, peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines.1.2 PROBLEM rehearsalMalaysia is very felicitous for being integrity of the home grounds of Rafflesia. But unfortunately, all of the known species of Rafflesia are peril or endange lossd ish. In Malaysia the Rafflesia is tout ensemble a solely Protected coiffure by law in Sarawak. In Sabah and peninsular Malaysia it is that safeguarded by laws when found in protected areas like study or allege Parks. In 2002, 44 out of the 83 Rafflesia florescences found in Sabah were orthogonal of designated preservation places (Sabah Travel Guide, 2004).Eight out of the 23 known species of Rafflesia dismiss be found in Malaysia, close of them in the jungles on the island of Borneo. approximately species of Rafflesia are autochthonic species. That means these species are inborn and posterior be found besides in that location. For example, Rafflesia disco biscuitgku-adlinii seems to be autochthonal to Sabah completely charm Rafflesia tuan-mudae enzootic to Sarawak only. Because the Rafflesia is only found in particularized areas and its locations very much demanding to reach, and because it only skin rashs for a very short time, its pure tone cycle or the methods of pollination and seed dispersal is very unclear. This corrects the distract methods to carry on it instead difficult to be found.Other than that, in peninsular Malaysia meridian buds are still sold as traditional medicine. The buds are seen as a sign of fertility, and are given to help m separates regain subsequently birth. The over collection of these buds has non helped with preservation efforts moreover besides drastically lessen the number of Rafflesia in the infatuated, accentuating the riddle the alarmingly betting trans pathation of jungles into palm oil plantation creates (Sabah Travel Guide, 2004). The Rafflesia is a breakable plant that relies on an intact environment and as such is immanently extremely jeopardize to de timberlandation and checkment. saving must be d whizz to protect this species from extinct. The sound dust may help the drug user to distinguish the Rafflesia species in Malaysia. By use an gifted dodge, the user may m atch information astir(predicate) comees to conserve the Rafflesia.1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVESThere are nearly purposes for this look. The of import objectives of this search areto identify the Rafflesia species in Malaysia based on their physical characteristics.to develop an dependable body which help the public to name the Rafflesia species in Malaysia.to rove ashes performance in order to make it applicable to the realistic world.1.4 SCOPE OF STUDYThe scope of this research is chiefly roughly the Rafflesia f t marge down and the approaches to conserve it. This research in any case tight-fittingly the administration named an practised remains which using Macromedia Dreamweaver 8. The system of rules is the tool or chemical mechanism which contains all roll up information, recommendation and opinion from m either safeises and also upshots from so more researches do. The butt users of this system are tourists, publics, nature lovers and also those who enkin dle in conserving the Rafflesia plant.The system that forget be developed will volunteer the public near the Rafflesia species in Malaysia as well as the approaches to conserve the Rafflesia. By using an secure system, it would easier the public to access closely this jeopardise plant.1.5 THESIS governingThis thesis consist of fin chapters introduction, literature review, methodology, conducts and handling and conclusion.Chapter 2 is just about literature review. This chapter includes the Rafflesia characteristics, the diversity and habitat of Rafflesia, appointment of Rafflesia species as well as treats and conservation of Rafflesia. Introduction of estimable system also included in this chapter. Expert systems typically flip three fundamental components a companionship base, an proof engine and user interface.Chapter 3 is about methodology. This chapter contains the development pose of secure system for Rafflesia species identification. There are phoebe bird s tages in develop an expert system which are project abstract, knowl leap acquisition process, persona development, expansion and refinement and lowestly verification and validation.Chapter 4 is about the resolving and wrangleion. This chapter consists of the architecture of the system and also the flow in the developing system process. This research is using an IF-THEN rule in form of asking gesture to the user.Chapter 5 is about the conclusion. This chapter consists of conclusion for overall of this research. It includes the expert system technology, the ideal development of expert system and the recommendation to make the system sustain effective and also agencys to improve it.CHAPTER 2LITERATURE come off2.1 INTRODUCTIONThe Rafflesia is one of the most magnificent f turn downs invariably known to the botanic world. It is such a big blossom with curious demeanor, exceptional, rare and also mysterious. It is also immense scientific and public interest. Rafflesia in b loom has been expound as simply awe nearly (Nais, 2001). This chapter will discuss about Rafflesia characteristics, diversity, habitat, species identification as well as treats and conservation of Rafflesia.2.2 RAFFLESIA CHARACTERISTICSIn general, Rafflesia flowers consist of quintuplet leathery petals that are orangeness in colorise and mott direct with cream- saturationed warts (Attenborough, 1995). The flower also has no leaves, stem or roots.The melodramatic Rafflesia flowers are the largest hit flowers in the world the leathery petals fire reach over 90 centimetres crossways (Attenborough, 1995). Rafflesia is a parasite that depends completely upon its soldiery which supplies nutrients and water to the flower. These swarm plants are vines of Tetrastigma spp., and the Rafflesia plant is itself non visible until the facts of life stage when flowers runner bud through the woody vine and then exposed into the magnificent spectacle that is world-renowned now (Nais, 20 01).Most flowers in the genus give off and smell of rotting flesh, therefrom the local called it the corpse flower. When in bloom, the flower displays its five fleshy petals or so called perianth lobes. The diam of the heterogeneous species of Rafflesia flower ranges from approximately 20 cm to a record diameter of 106.7 cm (Meijer, 1985). Other than that, the quaint part of this giant flower is the flowers lowlife take up to ten months to develop from the first visible bud to the collapse bloom, which may last from 5 to 7 old age only.Currently 17 species of Rafflesia are accepted and these mainly differ in the morphology of their flowers (Nais, 2001). There is a fertile well in the centre of the flower containing a central brocaded disc raised that supports many vertical spines (Attenborough, 1995). The experienceable organs are set beneath the brim of the disk, and male and egg-producing(prenominal) flowers are cave in (Attenborough, 1995).2.3 RAFFLESIA DIVERSITYT here are 23 completely known species and 4 incompletely known species of Rafflesia as accept by Meijer on 1997. flurry 3.1 shows the known species of Rafflesia and confuse 3.2 shows the unknown species of Rafflesia as recognized by Meijer on 1997.2.4 RAFFLESIA HABITATRafflesia is restricted to the western part of the phytogeographical role of Malesia, which is known as the Sunda shelf (Nais, 2001). The piece is floristically distinct, with a clear bounds from sur abouting region (Steenis, 1950). Table 2.3 shows the genus distribution in their landmass location. offspring in parentheses de nones the number of Rafflesia species set in each area.Book of Rafflesia kingly charge of Sabah by Kamarudin snap Saleh (1991)A total of 23 name of Rafflesia species fork over been produce between 1821 and 1988 (index Kewensis, 1994). Six of the names are now considered synonyms, and a that four prolong inadequate pillow slip literal and are treat as insufficiently known specie s (Meijer, 1997).The western most extension of Rafflesia is Acheh District, Sumatra, followed by the Ranong Province in Thailand, about 5 km from the Myanmar border (Meijer Elliot, 1990 Banziger, 1991 Elliot, 1991 Banziger et al., 1993). The easterly limit is backing Apo Timur and at Gunung Dadum in east Sabah (Nais, 2001). The northern most limits are at Mount Makiling, Los Banos Province, on Luzon Island in the Philippnes (Madulid Agoo, 1996), and the southern limit is the province of Java, Indonesia. The distribution of Rafflesias genus is shown in date 2.1.2.5 naming OF RAFFLESIA SPECIESThe first explanation of the morphology of Rafflesia was made by Robert Brown (1821, 1835), who provided a detailed and precise description and illustrations of the male and female flowers of Rafflesia arnoldii (Nais, 2001). The taxonomy of Rafflesia is based just on the floral morphology (form and structure) of the flower with most emphasis on the outer appearance. The modern species de limitation of Rafflesia is based on eight study characters. These eight shifting characters are listed below (Nais, 2001) and the radial section of Rafflesia flower drawn by Yong Ket Hyun, subsequently Meijer 1985 are shown in enter 2.2. sizing (diameter of assailable flowers varies from 15 cm in R. manillana to skinnyly 1 m in R. arnoldii)diameter of the hitch aperture (ranging form 3-9 cm in R. micropylora, to about 20 cm in R. arnoldii) count of disk processes (from none in R. rochussenii to 20-60 in R. arnoldii) coat and number of white vagrant (called blots, specks or warts) on the perigonium lobes and point (from few to large in R. hasseltii to numerous and petty(a) in R. arnoldii)Number and size of the windowpanes on the inside or lower surface of the midriff (3-5 go of round floater in R. micropylora, septet peal of round spots in R. kerrii, or five go of e retentiveate prolate spots in R. pricei)Number of anthers (from about 15 in R. manillana to 40 in R. a rnoldii)Structure and length of ramenta, and position of their incident (from short and more or less postulate in R. manillana to up to 12 mm farsighted in R. micropylora in R. schadenbergiana, ramenta occur on the undersite of the midriff ramenta in various species may have apices branched or unbranched, egotistical or crateriform) andNumber of annuli at the base of the perianth resistance and column, all species has any 1 or 2(for example, 2 in R. pricei).In this research, the cerebrate is on the Rafflesia species in Sabah, Sarawak and peninsular Malaysia only. There are eight species of Rafflesia keep be found around Malaysia which is four species (R. azlanii, R. cantleyi, R. hasseltii and R. kerrii) located in Peninsular Malaysia, three species (R. tengku-adlinii, R. keithi and R. pricei) can be found in Sabah and four species (R. tuan-mudae, R. pricei and R. keithii) in Sarawak.2.5.1 Rafflesia cantleyi Solms-LaubachRafflesia cantleyi was named after M. Cantley, cura tor of the Singapore botanic Gardens in 1880 to 1886, who sedate the fount warning in 1881. This species was exposit by H. plant Solms-Laubach based on a collection made by M. Cantley in 1881. Rafflesia cantleyi has grant flower proportion from 30 to 55 cm in diameter. Its perigone lobes are up to 14 cm long and 18 cm wide. It has 6 to 8 opaque warts in radial and lateral pass directions, about 10 in the basal row. The diaphragm origin is 4 to 8 cm across and rounded shape or sometimes angular. It has 5 homocentric go of oval white blots. Its ramenta is 2 cm long in pep pill vitrine firearm middle and lower case is 10 to 12 mm longs, or sometimes branched, almost all with swollen apices. Its number of anthers is from 20 to 25 and this species can be found in Peninsular Malaysia only (Perak, Kedah, Perlis, Selangor, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang and Tioman Island). externalise 2.3 shows the fancy of Rafflesia cantleyi.2.5.2 Rafflesia hasseltii SuringarRafflesia hasselti i was draw by Suringer in 1879 from discovery in Central Sumatra. R. hasseltii has an sacrifice flower attribute from 35 to 50 cm in diameter. It has 10 to 13 cm long and 14 to 17 cm wide of perigone lobes. It has opaque-pinkish blots across and large size of blots ranging from 5 x 3 to 10 x 1 cm. The clear contrast of snow white blots on b ripe(p) brick-red undercoat easily distinguishes this species from others. Its window is milklike or scout yellowish with a dark brown zone near the rim and the fuse ramenta near the attachment point of the diaphragm gradually force white blots (window) on the lower part of the diaphragm. The R. hasseltii ramentas upper type is toadstool-like compound ramenta which gradually go the white blots of the windows. While for middle and lower type is generally one-dimensional with swollen apices. The number of anthers is 20 and this species can be found in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo and its altitudinal distribution is from 400 t o 600 m. Figure 2.4 shows the vulnerability of Rafflesia hasseltii.2.5.3 Rafflesia keithii MeijerRafflesia keithii was named after Harry G. Keith, the former Conservator of Forests in British North Borneo or nowadays called Sabah, Malaysia. This species was expound by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia keithii has an open flower dimension from 80 to 94 cm in diameter. The perigone lobes are 10 to 12 cm across at the average of the lobes but sometimes it has six-lobed. Its colour is numerous white warts with dense, more or less of the very(prenominal) sizes. The diaphragm hypothesis is normally 5 coaxal of white warts in about 40 radial rows, each skirt by a dark red-brown margin. Its window has 5 to 6 rings of large, white blots, those hot to the rim merging. The ramenta for upper type is 5 to 6 mm long which often fascicled (in bundles) middle and for lower type is lonely(prenominal) and only some with a swollen head. Rafflesia keithii always has 40 rime of anthers. This sp ecies can be found only in Borneo with 250 to 940 m of altitudinal distribution. Figure 2.5 shows the image of Rafflesia keithii.2.5.4 Rafflesia kerrii MeijerRafflesia kerrii was named after A.F.G. Kerr, Thailands first Government Botanist, who placid the specimen from which the specimen was described. This species was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia kerrii has an open flower dimension of 50 to 70 cm in diameter. It has 13 to 20 cm long and 19 to 24 cm wide of perigone lobes. Its colour is dull red with brownish tinge and have numerous and unconnected warts with 3 to 4 mm space between them. The size of warts for R. kerrii is the smallest compared to other species. The diaphragm hypothesis ia about 12 to 17 cm across and have upper face with 3 to 4 concentric rings of white spots surrounded by a dark red margin. The characteristics for its window are bright white in colour with roundish to elliptic blots and up to 10 mm of diameter. This species of Rafflesia has ra menta that mostly unbranched and only slightly swollen at apex. Its anthers consist of about 26 to 31. The distribution of Rafflesia kerrii is surrounding Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia which at attitude from 500 to 1000 m. Figure 2.6 shows the picture of Rafflesia kerrii.2.5.5 Rafflesia pricei MeijerRafflesia pricei was named after William Price, a honourary plant collector for the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, who collected this species along the trail to the Mamut Copper Mine. This species of Rafflesia was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia pricei can only be found in Sabah only. It has 16 to 45 cm of rise flower dimension. It has 40 to 80 raised whitish spots (warts) surrounded by brick-red background. The spots range from 1 to 4 cm in length and the surface is minutely rugolose giving a matted appearance while the red background is densely papillary (Beaman at al., 1988). The diaphragm go-ahead is about 5 to 6 cm in diameter and the diaphragm has 4 to 5 irregular ri ngs of white spots smaller than those of the perigone lobes, surrounded by brick-red areas that punctuate into the cream-white background, the inner edge has a narrow white margin with a continuous mahogany area just immaterial the white rim (Beaman et al., 1988). The R. pricei has 4 to 5 concentric rings of large white window panes or blots and undertake with the bright red background. The interior of the perigone organ pipe from the base of the tube to the lower edge of the diaphragm is lines with wine-red ramenta. The upper type (near the diaphragms initiative move) is about 2 to 6 long while middle type (near the insertion of the perigone lobes) is about 4 to 6 cm long and the lower type (near the base of the perigone tube) is about 6 to 7 mm long. The number of anthers for R. pricei is 20. Figure 2.6 shows the picture of Rafflesia pricei.2.5.6 Rafflesia tengku-adlinii Mat Salleh LatiffRafflesia tengku-adlini was named after Tengku Datuk (Dr.) Adlin Tengku Zainal Abidin , a keen naturalist and conservationist in Sabah who facilitated the documentation of the species after its recovery. This species was described by Kamarudin Mat Salleh and A. Latiff Mohamed from a specimen collected at Mount Trus Madi, Sabah in the course of study of 1989. R. tengku-adlinii is endemic species to Sabah only at altitude 610 to 800 m. Its outset flower dimension is about 20 to 25 cm diameter while its perigone lobes are 7 to 12 cm long and 12 to 16 cm wide. The colour of R. tengku-adlinii is bright to dull orange passim with warts throughout the upper surface except near the diaphragm break. The diaphragm opening is up to 12.5 cm wide and about 3 cm in diameter. It has no windows and the lower diaphragm covered with ramenta. The ramenta occurs right up to the opening of the diaphragm with 3 to 5 cm long, apices swollen, upper, middle and lower types all have fine bristles. The number of anthers for this species is 20. Figure 2.8 shows the picture of Rafflesia ten gku-adlinii.2.5.7 Rafflesia tuan-mudae BeccariRafflesia tuan-mudae was named after Mr. Carlo (Charles) Brooke Tuan Muda of Sarawak. This species wasfirst collected from Mount Pueh, Sarawak, from which specimen the species was described by Beccari in 1868. Rafflesia tuan-mudae also is an endemic species. It only can be found in Sarawak. The opening flower dimension can reach from 44 to 92 cm in diameter. The numbers of perigone lobes is usually 5, sometimes 6 (at Gunung Gading National Park, Sarawak (personal observation), or evening 7 (in Cagar Alam Gunung Raya Pasi (Zuhud et al., 1998). The colour of R. tuan-mudae is such(prenominal) like R. keithii, but it only has 5 to 8 warts across the median. The diaphragm opening is from 15 to 18 cm and the number of anthers is unknown. Figure 2.9 shows the picture of Rafflesia tuan-mudae.2.5.8 Rafflesia azlanii Latiff M. WongRafflesia azlanii is endemic species to Peninsular Malaysia only at altitude 150 to 400 m. Its opening flower dime nsion is about 38 to 50 cm diameter while its perigone lobes are 9.5 to 10.5 cm long and 12 to 14.5 cm wide. The colour and design of R. azlanii is large and continuous ( non all like R. hasseltii) whitish warts with brick-red background. The diaphragm opening is from 4.7 to 5.5 cm in diameter. During an early stage of blooming, the open diaphragm is about 7 cm and when the flower bloom fully, the open diaphragm have wider up to 18 cm. The flowers window is large whitish scattered of warts. The ramenta for upper type is 6 mm long while for lower type is 4 mm long. The number of anthers for this species is unknown. Figure 2.10 shows the picture of Rafflesia azlanii.2.6 THREATS AND CONSERVATIONRafflesia is one of the most threatened and also one of the rarest plants in the world. The inhabitence of this foreboding(a) flower is precarious and it will eventually give way extinct without lively conservation efforts.2.6.1 ThreatsRafflesia are inherently rare as a result of a number of factors of their life cycle they have a three-fold habitat specialisation, as they can only madely parasitise particular species and these species in turn are found only in peculiar(prenominal) habitats (Nais, 2001). In improver to this factor, there is an extremely unbalanced call down ratio in the Rafflesia flowers observed, with many more male than female flowers (Nais, 2001).Flower buds have a high level of mortality and only 10 to 18 portion go on to bloom, these only lasting for a few days the chances of a male and female flower being in bloom at the same time in a close equal vicinity to be pollinated is therefore extremely abridge (Nais, 2001). In addition to these inherent factors, there is widespread habitat final stage within much of the rain forested area of Southeast Asia and Rafflesia buds are also collected for traditional medicine to treat fertility riddles, in parts of their range.2.6.2 ConservationThe tropical rain forest is the most threatened environ ment and has experienced the greatest loss of species during our lifetime (Lucas Synge, 1981). Human fear is one of the factors that result great loss of this natural habitats and species. Under the innovate circumstances, Rafflesia appears to be one of the genera approaching extinction (Nais, 2001). Therefore, the tropical rain forest and all their inhabitants must be the main focus in conservation efforts.2.6.3 Conservation locating of RafflesiaThe World Conservation Union, IUCN (1984, 1988, and 1997) naturalised five main categories to highlight the conservation status of speciesExtinct (no longer known to exist in the wild) jeopardize (species that have a high likelihood of sightly extinct in the near future)Vulnerable (species that may become endanger in the near future because existences are decreasing in size throughout the range) grand (species that have small total numbers of individuals, often due to hold in geographical ranges or low population densities)insufficie ntly known (species that belike belong in one of the preceding categories but are not sufficiently known to be assigned to a specific category).The conservation status of Rafflesia can only be dependably assessed by getting and analyzing extensive field information of each species. These data include the distribution and the characteristics of sites, rarity and reproductive ecology. The conservation status of all Rafflesia species based on current acquaintance which is from published account recognized by IUCN (1997), present analysis using the WCMC/IUCN classification of Conservation stipulation and present analysis using the IUCNs new Categories of Conservation Status are shown in Table 2.4.2.6.4 Approaches to Conserve RafflesiaThere are two approaches can be taken according to Nais (2001). hotshot of the approaches and also the best conservation approach for any species is in situ (or on site) conservation which mean divergence it to sustain wild in its original habitat. In situ conservation is usually more effective than other approaches because natural condition often unachievable to duplicate artificially. In situ conservation strategy of Rafflesia involvesi) Protection inside established Conservation AreasOne of the major problem to conserve the Rafflesia is because so many tourist eager to pay homepage to existing Rafflesia sites, cause massive walk, even to level where some populations are trampled to extinction. The mechanisms to control over-visitation are inadequate, and the infrastructure to disparage its impact is not well developed. One way to avoid trampling is by constructing boardwalks or walkways over Rafflesia population. In addition, Rafflesia sites outside conservation areas take aim to be made available for tourists, thus reducing the pressure for population within conservation areas (Nais, 2001).ii) Designating New Conservation AreasIt may not be possible to make each Rafflesia site become conservation areas. A more argua ble strategy is to synergize the Rafflesia cause with other issues, such as the protection of forests for water catchment, total habitat and biodiversity conservation, and also for nature tourism development (Nais, 2001). This may allow large area to be conserve to protect their habitat and also their population.iii) Protection of Sites in other Areas some Rafflsia locations are outside the protected areas which within the land belong to the indigenous community. Cooperation from the landlords is very serious in order to conserve the Rafflesia. By doing opening sites for tourism is one viable conservation solution and apart from that, it also can take income for the landowners.The second approach is by doing ex situ conservation. Ex situ conservation (sometimes referred to as off-site conservation) is the conservation of plants away from their natural incident Given (1994) cited in Nais (2001). This approach includes conserving whole plants or plants in botanical tend and gene banks, as well as using laboratory techniques such as tissues civilization for their propagation and preservation. Bringing Rafflesia into kitchen-gardening has always been appealing. Its cultivation would significant not only for its conservation, but also as an important step towards practice session of the plants for ecotourism purposes (Nais, 2001).Prior to the success by Nais et al. (in press, 2000), many researchers had unsuccessfully tried various methods and techniques of ex situ propagation of Rafflesia. These attempts have included efforts to grow Rafflesia by way of seed insertion into host plants and the translocating of Tetrastigma plants with Rafflesia buds (Nais, 1997 Nais Wilcock, 1999). Similar cattempts conducted by various other people have also not been successful, for example seed germination, tissues enculturation of Rafflesia and grafting of infected host plants into uninfected ones (Ghazally, 1991 Latif Mat-Salleh, 1991 Zuhud et al., 1998). These fail ures have initially led some researchers to believe that ex situ cultivation mayhap may neer be a viable option for the conservation of Rafflesia species (Meijer, 1997) until Nais et al. achieve successful in 1999.2.7 EXPERT SYSTEM AS A SOLUTION stylised Intelligence (AI) is a branch of data processor skill that is principally touch with using computational models to understand how humans speak up (Tanimoto, 1987). Major research areas include expert systems, search methods, intimacy representation, ratiocinative and probabilistic ratiocination, learning, natural language understanding, vision, and robotics (Cohen and Feigenbaum, 1982).The most successful application of imitation Intelligence so far is the development of Decision Support governance (DSS), particularly expert system, which is a computer political platform that act as a adviser or advisor to decision makers (Generation5, 2005).According to toque Aronson (2001), an expert system is a system that uses huma n companionship captured in a computer to ferment problems that ordinarily require human expertise, or, a computer program that can solve problems in a specific area of acquaintance (the problem domain) as well as a human expert (OKeefe et al., 1987), or, that automates tasks that are normally performed by specially educate or adroit people (Shannon et al., 1985). Usually when an organization having problem to solve and have to make critical decision, they often turn to consultants or experts seeking for advice. These experts or consultants have specific companionship and experience in the problem area. They are sensitive of alternative solutions, chances of success, and costs that the organization may find if the problem is not solved. Experts can diagnose problems correctly and solve them satisfactorily within a reasonable time frame.However, human experts are expensive, and they may not be readily available.Expert systems are an attempt to copy human experts (Turban, Rai ner, Potter, 2001). The expert system begins by asking questions about the problem to be solved. When the unavoidable information has been gathered (inputted by user), the system offers suggestions about how the problem can be solved (McEneaney, 1992). According to Wentworth (1993), expert systems differ from established programs in the way they store and use information. In a conventional program, the operations never vary as the programmer predetermines them. The conventional program contains incisively defined logical formulas and data, and if any data grammatical constituent is missing, the program will not run. The expert system, like the human expert, contains heuristic rule information and can function with incomplete information.2.7.1 Components of Expert SystemAn expert system is typically composed of at least three prime components. These are the demonstration engine, the knowledge base, and the working memory (Wikibooks, 2010). An expert system, also known as knowle dge-based system, uses the knowledge and experience of experts to solve problems in a reasonable effect of time. Human experts solve problems by using their existent knowledge and reasoning ability. In the other hand, an expert system uses its knowledge base and consequence engine to perform a similar task. Figure 2.1 shows the main components in an expert system.The knowledge base supplies specific facts and rules regarding a domain, while the inference engine offers the reasoning ability that allows the expert system to make conclusions. The user interface is the medium between the expert system and the user. An expert is psyche who has the ability to achieve a specific task efficiently by using his or her skills, experience, and knowledge in a specific domain.2.7.1.1 acquaintance BaseExpert systems are based on human knowledge and reasoning patterns (Wikibooks, 2010). The knowledge base an expert uses is what he learned at school, from colleagues, and from years of experienc e. The more experience he has, the larger his store of knowledge. companionship allows him to interpret the information in his databases to advantage in diagnosis, design, and analysis (Edward and Robert, 1993). This knowledge must be extracted from a human expert by a specialized knowledge engineer. Knowledge engineers ask the expert questions about his knowledge and his reasoning processes, and attempts to translate that intoRafflesia Species in Malaysia IdentificationRafflesia Species in Malaysia IdentificationINTRODUCTION1.1 BACKGROUND STUDYThere are a number of unique plant types in the world which are on the brink of extinction, or are so extremely limited in range. For example the beautiful palms such as the Talipot Palm (Corypha elata), Johannis teysmannia in Sarawak and Malaya, and also Livistona in West Sumatra. The largest flower in the world, Rafflesia arnoldii and related species, are going to vanish unless more nature reserves are created for such remarkable plants in Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and the Philippines.Rafflesia is a genus of flowering plants that is made up of 23 known species. The best known of these species is Rafflesia arboldii which has the distinction of being the worlds largest flower, reaching a diameter of about three feet. The genus Rafflesia gets its name from Sir Stamford Raffles, the founder of the British colony of Singapore (Walter et al., 1998).Rafflesia is a unique plant because of its dimensions unlike other flowers. This circumstance makes it widely known. It is also become an icon for conservation especially of the rain forest area. The rarity creates interest among nature lovers, tourists and the general public. The fact that some species may be in the brink of extinction alarms conservation groups. Its little-known biology and reproductive ecology spurs the interest of botanists and ecologist (Nais, 2004). Rafflesia is also thought to be one of the rarest of all plant genera which is only found in Borneo, Sumatra, J ava, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines.1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENTMalaysia is very fortunate for being one of the habitats of Rafflesia. But unfortunately, all of the known species of Rafflesia are threatened or endangered. In Malaysia the Rafflesia is only a Totally Protected Plant by law in Sarawak. In Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia it is only safeguarded by laws when found in protected areas like National or State Parks. In 2002, 44 out of the 83 Rafflesia flowers found in Sabah were outside of designated conservation places (Sabah Travel Guide, 2004).Eight out of the 23 known species of Rafflesia can be found in Malaysia, most of them in the jungles on the island of Borneo. Some species of Rafflesia are endemic species. That means these species are native and can be found only in that location. For example, Rafflesia tengku-adlinii seems to be endemic to Sabah only while Rafflesia tuan-mudae endemic to Sarawak only. Because the Rafflesia is only found in specific areas and its locations often difficult to reach, and because it only blooms for a very short time, its life cycle or the methods of pollination and seed dispersal is very unclear. This makes the appropriate methods to conserve it quite difficult to be found.Other than that, in Peninsular Malaysia flower buds are still sold as traditional medicine. The buds are seen as a sign of fertility, and are given to help mothers recover after birth. The over collection of these buds has not helped with conservation efforts but further drastically reduced the number of Rafflesia in the wild, accentuating the problem the alarmingly fast transformation of jungles into palm oil plantation creates (Sabah Travel Guide, 2004). The Rafflesia is a delicate plant that relies on an intact environment and as such is naturally extremely vulnerable to deforestation and development.Conservation must be done to protect this species from extinct. The expert system may help the user to identify the Rafflesia specie s in Malaysia. By using an expert system, the user may gather information about approaches to conserve the Rafflesia.1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVESThere are some purposes for this research. The main objectives of this research areto identify the Rafflesia species in Malaysia based on their physical characteristics.to develop an expert system which help the public to recognize the Rafflesia species in Malaysia.to verify system performance in order to make it applicable to the real world.1.4 SCOPE OF STUDYThe scope of this research is mainly about the Rafflesia flower and the approaches to conserve it. This research also about the system named an expert system which using Macromedia Dreamweaver 8. The system is the tool or mechanism which contains all collected information, recommendation and opinion from many expertises and also results from so many researches done. The target users of this system are tourists, publics, nature lovers and also those who interested in conserving the Rafflesia plant.The system that will be developed will provide the public about the Rafflesia species in Malaysia as well as the approaches to conserve the Rafflesia. By using an expert system, it would easier the public to access about this endangered plant.1.5 THESIS ORGANIZATIONThis thesis consist of five chapters introduction, literature review, methodology, results and discussion and conclusion.Chapter 2 is about literature review. This chapter includes the Rafflesia characteristics, the diversity and habitat of Rafflesia, identification of Rafflesia species as well as treats and conservation of Rafflesia. Introduction of expert system also included in this chapter. Expert systems typically have three basic components a knowledge base, an inference engine and user interface.Chapter 3 is about methodology. This chapter contains the development stage of expert system for Rafflesia species identification. There are five stages in developing an expert system which are task analysis, knowled ge acquisition process, prototype development, expansion and refinement and lastly verification and validation.Chapter 4 is about the result and discussion. This chapter consists of the architecture of the system and also the flow in the developing system process. This research is using an IF-THEN rule in form of asking question to the user.Chapter 5 is about the conclusion. This chapter consists of conclusion for overall of this research. It includes the expert system technology, the prototype development of expert system and the recommendation to make the system move effective and also ways to improve it.CHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 INTRODUCTIONThe Rafflesia is one of the most magnificent flowers ever known to the botanical world. It is such a big flower with odd appearance, exceptional, rare and also mysterious. It is also immense scientific and public interest. Rafflesia in bloom has been described as simply awesome (Nais, 2001). This chapter will discuss about Rafflesia charac teristics, diversity, habitat, species identification as well as treats and conservation of Rafflesia.2.2 RAFFLESIA CHARACTERISTICSIn general, Rafflesia flowers consist of five leathery petals that are orange in colour and mottled with cream-coloured warts (Attenborough, 1995). The flower also has no leaves, stem or roots.The dramatic Rafflesia flowers are the largest single flowers in the world the leathery petals can reach over 90 centimetres across (Attenborough, 1995). Rafflesia is a parasite that depends completely upon its host which supplies nutrients and water to the flower. These host plants are vines of Tetrastigma spp., and the Rafflesia plant is itself not visible until the reproduction stage when flowers first bud through the woody vine and then open into the magnificent spectacle that is world-renowned today (Nais, 2001).Most flowers in the genus give off and smell of rotting flesh, hence the local called it the corpse flower. When in bloom, the flower displays its fiv e fleshy petals or so called perigone lobes. The diameter of the various species of Rafflesia flower ranges from approximately 20 cm to a record diameter of 106.7 cm (Meijer, 1985). Other than that, the unique part of this giant flower is the flowers can take up to ten months to develop from the first visible bud to the open bloom, which may last from 5 to 7 days only.Currently 17 species of Rafflesia are recognised and these mainly differ in the morphology of their flowers (Nais, 2001). There is a deep well in the centre of the flower containing a central raised disc raised that supports many vertical spines (Attenborough, 1995). The sexual organs are located beneath the rim of the disk, and male and female flowers are separate (Attenborough, 1995).2.3 RAFFLESIA DIVERSITYThere are 23 completely known species and 4 incompletely known species of Rafflesia as recognized by Meijer on 1997. Table 3.1 shows the known species of Rafflesia and Table 3.2 shows the unknown species of Raffles ia as recognized by Meijer on 1997.2.4 RAFFLESIA HABITATRafflesia is restricted to the western part of the phytogeographical region of Malesia, which is known as the Sunda shelf (Nais, 2001). The region is floristically distinct, with a clear boundary from surrounding region (Steenis, 1950). Table 2.3 shows the genus distribution in their landmass location. Number in parentheses denotes the number of Rafflesia species present in each area.Book of Rafflesia Magnificent Flower of Sabah by Kamarudin Mat Saleh (1991)A total of 23 names of Rafflesia species have been published between 1821 and 1988 (index Kewensis, 1994). Six of the names are now considered synonyms, and a further four have inadequate type material and are treated as insufficiently known species (Meijer, 1997).The western most extension of Rafflesia is Acheh District, Sumatra, followed by the Ranong Province in Thailand, about 5 km from the Myanmar border (Meijer Elliot, 1990 Banziger, 1991 Elliot, 1991 Banziger et al., 1993). The eastern limit is Mount Apo Timur and at Gunung Dadum in Eastern Sabah (Nais, 2001). The northern most limits are at Mount Makiling, Los Banos Province, on Luzon Island in the Philippnes (Madulid Agoo, 1996), and the southern limit is the province of Java, Indonesia. The distribution of Rafflesias genus is shown in Figure 2.1.2.5 IDENTIFICATION OF RAFFLESIA SPECIESThe first description of the morphology of Rafflesia was made by Robert Brown (1821, 1835), who provided a detailed and meticulous description and illustrations of the male and female flowers of Rafflesia arnoldii (Nais, 2001). The taxonomy of Rafflesia is based entirely on the floral morphology (form and structure) of the flower with most emphasis on the outer appearance. The current species delimitation of Rafflesia is based on eight major characters. These eight variable characters are listed below (Nais, 2001) and the radial section of Rafflesia flower drawn by Yong Ket Hyun, after Meijer 1985 are shown in Figure 2.2.Size (diameter of open flowers varies from 15 cm in R. manillana to nearly 1 m in R. arnoldii)Diameter of the diaphragm aperture (ranging form 3-9 cm in R. micropylora, to about 20 cm in R. arnoldii)Number of disk processes (from none in R. rochussenii to 20-60 in R. arnoldii)Size and number of white spots (called blots, specks or warts) on the perigone lobes and diaphragm (from few to large in R. hasseltii to numerous and small in R. arnoldii)Number and size of the windows on the inside or lower surface of the diaphragm (3-5 rings of round spots in R. micropylora, seven rings of round spots in R. kerrii, or five rings of elongate oval spots in R. pricei)Number of anthers (from about 15 in R. manillana to 40 in R. arnoldii)Structure and length of ramenta, and position of their occurrence (from short and more or less postulate in R. manillana to up to 12 mm long in R. micropylora in R. schadenbergiana, ramenta occur on the undersite of the diaphragm ramenta in various spec ies may have apices branched or unbranched, swollen or crateriform) andNumber of annuli at the base of the perigone tube and column, all species has either 1 or 2(for example, 2 in R. pricei).In this research, the focus is on the Rafflesia species in Sabah, Sarawak and Peninsular Malaysia only. There are eight species of Rafflesia can be found around Malaysia which is four species (R. azlanii, R. cantleyi, R. hasseltii and R. kerrii) located in Peninsular Malaysia, three species (R. tengku-adlinii, R. keithi and R. pricei) can be found in Sabah and four species (R. tuan-mudae, R. pricei and R. keithii) in Sarawak.2.5.1 Rafflesia cantleyi Solms-LaubachRafflesia cantleyi was named after M. Cantley, curator of the Singapore Botanic Gardens in 1880 to 1886, who collected the type specimen in 1881. This species was described by H. Graft Solms-Laubach based on a collection made by M. Cantley in 1881. Rafflesia cantleyi has open flower dimension from 30 to 55 cm in diameter. Its perigone l obes are up to 14 cm long and 18 cm wide. It has 6 to 8 whitish warts in radial and lateral directions, about 10 in the basal row. The diaphragm opening is 4 to 8 cm across and rounded shape or sometimes angular. It has 5 concentric rings of oval white blots. Its ramenta is 2 cm long in upper type while middle and lower type is 10 to 12 mm longs, or sometimes branched, almost all with swollen apices. Its number of anthers is from 20 to 25 and this species can be found in Peninsular Malaysia only (Perak, Kedah, Perlis, Selangor, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang and Tioman Island). Figure 2.3 shows the picture of Rafflesia cantleyi.2.5.2 Rafflesia hasseltii SuringarRafflesia hasseltii was described by Suringer in 1879 from discovery in Central Sumatra. R. hasseltii has an open flower dimension from 35 to 50 cm in diameter. It has 10 to 13 cm long and 14 to 17 cm wide of perigone lobes. It has whitish-pinkish blots across and large size of blots ranging from 5 x 3 to 10 x 1 cm. The clear c ontrast of snow white blots on bright brick-red background easily distinguishes this species from others. Its window is whitish or pale yellowish with a dark brown zone near the rim and the compound ramenta near the attachment point of the diaphragm gradually become white blots (window) on the lower part of the diaphragm. The R. hasseltii ramentas upper type is toadstool-like compound ramenta which gradually becoming the white blots of the windows. While for middle and lower type is generally linear with swollen apices. The number of anthers is 20 and this species can be found in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo and its altitudinal distribution is from 400 to 600 m. Figure 2.4 shows the picture of Rafflesia hasseltii.2.5.3 Rafflesia keithii MeijerRafflesia keithii was named after Harry G. Keith, the former Conservator of Forests in British North Borneo or nowadays called Sabah, Malaysia. This species was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia keithii has an open flower dimension from 80 to 94 cm in diameter. The perigone lobes are 10 to 12 cm across at the median of the lobes but sometimes it has six-lobed. Its colour is numerous white warts with dense, more or less of the same sizes. The diaphragm opening is normally 5 concentric of white warts in about 40 radial rows, each surrounded by a dark red-brown margin. Its window has 5 to 6 rings of large, white blots, those nearer to the rim merging. The ramenta for upper type is 5 to 6 mm long which often fascicled (in bundles) middle and for lower type is solitary and only some with a swollen head. Rafflesia keithii always has 40 numbers of anthers. This species can be found only in Borneo with 250 to 940 m of altitudinal distribution. Figure 2.5 shows the picture of Rafflesia keithii.2.5.4 Rafflesia kerrii MeijerRafflesia kerrii was named after A.F.G. Kerr, Thailands first Government Botanist, who collected the specimen from which the specimen was described. This species was described by Willem Mei jer in 1984. Rafflesia kerrii has an open flower dimension of 50 to 70 cm in diameter. It has 13 to 20 cm long and 19 to 24 cm wide of perigone lobes. Its colour is dull red with brownish tinge and have numerous and scattered warts with 3 to 4 mm space between them. The size of warts for R. kerrii is the smallest compared to other species. The diaphragm opening ia about 12 to 17 cm across and have upper face with 3 to 4 concentric rings of white spots surrounded by a dark red margin. The characteristics for its window are bright white in colour with roundish to elliptic blots and up to 10 mm of diameter. This species of Rafflesia has ramenta that mostly unbranched and only slightly swollen at apex. Its anthers consist of about 26 to 31. The distribution of Rafflesia kerrii is surrounding Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia which at attitude from 500 to 1000 m. Figure 2.6 shows the picture of Rafflesia kerrii.2.5.5 Rafflesia pricei MeijerRafflesia pricei was named after William Price, a honourary plant collector for the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, who collected this species along the trail to the Mamut Copper Mine. This species of Rafflesia was described by Willem Meijer in 1984. Rafflesia pricei can only be found in Sabah only. It has 16 to 45 cm of opening flower dimension. It has 40 to 80 raised whitish spots (warts) surrounded by brick-red background. The spots range from 1 to 4 cm in length and the surface is minutely rugolose giving a matted appearance while the red background is densely papillose (Beaman at al., 1988). The diaphragm opening is about 5 to 6 cm in diameter and the diaphragm has 4 to 5 irregular rings of white spots smaller than those of the perigone lobes, surrounded by brick-red areas that grade into the cream-white background, the inner edge has a narrow white margin with a continuous reddish-brown area just outside the white rim (Beaman et al., 1988). The R. pricei has 4 to 5 concentric rings of large white window panes or blots and contrac ting with the bright red background. The interior of the perigone tube from the base of the tube to the lower edge of the diaphragm is lines with wine-red ramenta. The upper type (near the diaphragms opening) is about 2 to 6 long while middle type (near the insertion of the perigone lobes) is about 4 to 6 cm long and the lower type (near the base of the perigone tube) is about 6 to 7 mm long. The number of anthers for R. pricei is 20. Figure 2.6 shows the picture of Rafflesia pricei.2.5.6 Rafflesia tengku-adlinii Mat Salleh LatiffRafflesia tengku-adlini was named after Tengku Datuk (Dr.) Adlin Tengku Zainal Abidin, a keen naturalist and conservationist in Sabah who facilitated the documentation of the species after its recovery. This species was described by Kamarudin Mat Salleh and A. Latiff Mohamed from a specimen collected at Mount Trus Madi, Sabah in the year of 1989. R. tengku-adlinii is endemic species to Sabah only at altitude 610 to 800 m. Its opening flower dimension is ab out 20 to 25 cm diameter while its perigone lobes are 7 to 12 cm long and 12 to 16 cm wide. The colour of R. tengku-adlinii is bright to dull orange throughout with warts throughout the upper surface except near the diaphragm opening. The diaphragm opening is up to 12.5 cm wide and about 3 cm in diameter. It has no windows and the lower diaphragm covered with ramenta. The ramenta occurs right up to the opening of the diaphragm with 3 to 5 cm long, apices swollen, upper, middle and lower types all have fine bristles. The number of anthers for this species is 20. Figure 2.8 shows the picture of Rafflesia tengku-adlinii.2.5.7 Rafflesia tuan-mudae BeccariRafflesia tuan-mudae was named after Mr. Carlo (Charles) Brooke Tuan Muda of Sarawak. This species wasfirst collected from Mount Pueh, Sarawak, from which specimen the species was described by Beccari in 1868. Rafflesia tuan-mudae also is an endemic species. It only can be found in Sarawak. The opening flower dimension can reach from 44 to 92 cm in diameter. The numbers of perigone lobes is usually 5, sometimes 6 (at Gunung Gading National Park, Sarawak (personal observation), or even 7 (in Cagar Alam Gunung Raya Pasi (Zuhud et al., 1998). The colour of R. tuan-mudae is much like R. keithii, but it only has 5 to 8 warts across the median. The diaphragm opening is from 15 to 18 cm and the number of anthers is unknown. Figure 2.9 shows the picture of Rafflesia tuan-mudae.2.5.8 Rafflesia azlanii Latiff M. WongRafflesia azlanii is endemic species to Peninsular Malaysia only at altitude 150 to 400 m. Its opening flower dimension is about 38 to 50 cm diameter while its perigone lobes are 9.5 to 10.5 cm long and 12 to 14.5 cm wide. The colour and pattern of R. azlanii is large and continuous (not all like R. hasseltii) whitish warts with brick-red background. The diaphragm opening is from 4.7 to 5.5 cm in diameter. During an early stage of blooming, the open diaphragm is about 7 cm and when the flower bloom fully, the o pen diaphragm become wider up to 18 cm. The flowers window is large whitish scattered of warts. The ramenta for upper type is 6 mm long while for lower type is 4 mm long. The number of anthers for this species is unknown. Figure 2.10 shows the picture of Rafflesia azlanii.2.6 THREATS AND CONSERVATIONRafflesia is one of the most threatened and also one of the rarest plants in the world. The existence of this prodigious flower is precarious and it will eventually become extinct without active conservation efforts.2.6.1 ThreatsRafflesia are inherently rare as a result of a number of factors of their life cycle they have a double habitat specialisation, as they can only successfully parasitise particular species and these species in turn are found only in specific habitats (Nais, 2001). In addition to this factor, there is an extremely unbalanced sex ratio in the Rafflesia flowers observed, with many more male than female flowers (Nais, 2001).Flower buds have a high level of mortality a nd only 10 to 18 percent go on to bloom, these only lasting for a few days the chances of a male and female flower being in bloom at the same time in a close enough vicinity to be pollinated is therefore extremely slim (Nais, 2001). In addition to these inherent factors, there is widespread habitat destruction within much of the rain forested area of Southeast Asia and Rafflesia buds are also collected for traditional medicine to treat fertility problems, in parts of their range.2.6.2 ConservationThe tropical rain forest is the most threatened environment and has experienced the greatest loss of species during our lifetime (Lucas Synge, 1981). Human disturbance is one of the factors that result great loss of this natural habitats and species. Under the present circumstances, Rafflesia appears to be one of the genera approaching extinction (Nais, 2001). Therefore, the tropical rain forest and all their inhabitants must be the main focus in conservation efforts.2.6.3 Conservation Sta tus of RafflesiaThe World Conservation Union, IUCN (1984, 1988, and 1997) established five main categories to highlight the conservation status of speciesExtinct (no longer known to exist in the wild)Endangered (species that have a high likelihood of becoming extinct in the near future)Vulnerable (species that may become endangered in the near future because populations are decreasing in size throughout the range)Rare (species that have small total numbers of individuals, often due to limited geographical ranges or low population densities)Insufficiently known (species that probably belong in one of the preceding categories but are not sufficiently known to be assigned to a specific category).The conservation status of Rafflesia can only be reliably assessed by acquiring and analyzing extensive field data of each species. These data include the distribution and the characteristics of sites, rarity and reproductive ecology. The conservation status of all Rafflesia species based on cu rrent knowledge which is from published account recognized by IUCN (1997), present analysis using the WCMC/IUCN classification of Conservation Status and present analysis using the IUCNs new Categories of Conservation Status are shown in Table 2.4.2.6.4 Approaches to Conserve RafflesiaThere are two approaches can be taken according to Nais (2001). One of the approaches and also the best conservation approach for any species is in situ (or on site) conservation which mean leaving it to grow wild in its original habitat. In situ conservation is usually more effective than other approaches because natural condition often impossible to duplicate artificially. In situ conservation strategy of Rafflesia involvesi) Protection inside established Conservation AreasOne of the major problem to conserve the Rafflesia is because so many tourist eager to pay homepage to existing Rafflesia sites, cause massive trampling, even to level where some populations are trampled to extinction. The mechanis ms to control over-visitation are inadequate, and the infrastructure to minimize its impact is not well developed. One way to avoid trampling is by constructing boardwalks or walkways over Rafflesia population. In addition, Rafflesia sites outside conservation areas need to be made available for tourists, thus reducing the pressure for population within conservation areas (Nais, 2001).ii) Designating New Conservation AreasIt may not be possible to make each Rafflesia site become conservation areas. A more plausible strategy is to synergize the Rafflesia cause with other issues, such as the protection of forests for water catchment, total habitat and biodiversity conservation, and also for nature tourism development (Nais, 2001). This may allow larger area to be conserved to protect their habitat and also their population.iii) Protection of Sites in other AreasMany Rafflsia locations are outside the protected areas which within the land belong to the indigenous community. Cooperation from the landlords is very important in order to conserve the Rafflesia. By doing opening sites for tourism is one viable conservation solution and apart from that, it also can generate income for the landowners.The second approach is by doing ex situ conservation. Ex situ conservation (sometimes referred to as off-site conservation) is the conservation of plants away from their natural occurrence Given (1994) cited in Nais (2001). This approach includes conserving whole plants or plants in botanical garden and gene banks, as well as using laboratory techniques such as tissues culture for their propagation and preservation. Bringing Rafflesia into cultivation has always been appealing. Its cultivation would important not only for its conservation, but also as an important step towards utilization of the plants for ecotourism purposes (Nais, 2001).Prior to the success by Nais et al. (in press, 2000), many researchers had unsuccessfully tried various methods and techniques of ex situ propagation of Rafflesia. These attempts have included efforts to grow Rafflesia by way of seed insertion into host plants and the translocating of Tetrastigma plants with Rafflesia buds (Nais, 1997 Nais Wilcock, 1999). Similar cattempts conducted by various other people have also not been successful, for example seed germination, tissues culture of Rafflesia and grafting of infected host plants into uninfected ones (Ghazally, 1991 Latif Mat-Salleh, 1991 Zuhud et al., 1998). These failures have initially led some researchers to believe that ex situ cultivation possibly may never be a viable option for the conservation of Rafflesia species (Meijer, 1997) until Nais et al. achieve successful in 1999.2.7 EXPERT SYSTEM AS A SOLUTIONArtificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science that is principally concerned with using computational models to understand how humans think (Tanimoto, 1987). Major research areas include expert systems, search methods, knowledge representatio n, logical and probabilistic reasoning, learning, natural language understanding, vision, and robotics (Cohen and Feigenbaum, 1982).The most successful application of Artificial Intelligence so far is the development of Decision Support System (DSS), particularly expert system, which is a computer program that act as a consultant or advisor to decision makers (Generation5, 2005).According to Turban Aronson (2001), an expert system is a system that uses human knowledge captured in a computer to solve problems that ordinarily require human expertise, or, a computer program that can solve problems in a specific area of knowledge (the problem domain) as well as a human expert (OKeefe et al., 1987), or, that automates tasks that are normally performed by specially trained or talented people (Shannon et al., 1985). Usually when an organization having problem to solve and have to make critical decision, they often turn to consultants or experts seeking for advice. These experts or consult ants have specific knowledge and experience in the problem area. They are aware of alternative solutions, chances of success, and costs that the organization may incur if the problem is not solved. Experts can diagnose problems correctly and solve them satisfactorily within a reasonable time frame.However, human experts are expensive, and they may not be readily available.Expert systems are an attempt to mimic human experts (Turban, Rainer, Potter, 2001). The expert system begins by asking questions about the problem to be solved. When the needed information has been gathered (inputted by user), the system offers suggestions about how the problem can be solved (McEneaney, 1992). According to Wentworth (1993), expert systems differ from conventional programs in the way they store and use information. In a conventional program, the operations never vary as the programmer predetermines them. The conventional program contains precisely defined logical formulas and data, and if any data element is missing, the program will not run. The expert system, like the human expert, contains heuristic information and can function with incomplete information.2.7.1 Components of Expert SystemAn expert system is typically composed of at least three primary components. These are the inference engine, the knowledge base, and the working memory (Wikibooks, 2010). An expert system, also known as knowledge-based system, uses the knowledge and experience of experts to solve problems in a reasonable period of time. Human experts solve problems by using their factual knowledge and reasoning ability. In the other hand, an expert system uses its knowledge base and inference engine to perform a similar task. Figure 2.1 shows the main components in an expert system.The knowledge base supplies specific facts and rules regarding a domain, while the inference engine offers the reasoning ability that allows the expert system to make conclusions. The user interface is the medium between the ex pert system and the user. An expert is someone who has the ability to achieve a specific task efficiently by using his or her skills, experience, and knowledge in a specific domain.2.7.1.1 Knowledge BaseExpert systems are based on human knowledge and reasoning patterns (Wikibooks, 2010). The knowledge base an expert uses is what he learned at school, from colleagues, and from years of experience. The more experience he has, the larger his store of knowledge. Knowledge allows him to interpret the information in his databases to advantage in diagnosis, design, and analysis (Edward and Robert, 1993). This knowledge must be extracted from a human expert by a specialized knowledge engineer. Knowledge engineers ask the expert questions about his knowledge and his reasoning processes, and attempts to translate that into

Reflection on Engineering Work

Reflection on engine room WorkPROFESSIONAL ENGINEERSummary StatementThese are the expertness Units and Elements. These elements must be addressed in the Summary Statement (see voice C). If you are applying for assessment as a Professional Engineer, you will expect to download this page, complete it and lodge it with your application.Competency ElementA truncated summary of how you have applied the elementParagraph number in the career episode(s) where the element is addressedPE1 KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL BASE PE1.1 Comprehensive, theoretic understanding of the underpinning natural and physical sciences and the technology fundamentals applicable to the engineering science disciplineTheoretical knowledge gained from studying Renewable Energy Resources , chemical mechanism of Materials and Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning was employ in the projects.CE 1.2, 2.1, 2.2PE1.2 Conceptual understanding of the mathematics, numerical epitome, statistics and computer and information s ciences which underpin the engineering disciplineI used different mathematical equations for the designing of parabolic public treasury.Heating and Cooling load for the Air Conditioning were calculated victimization load calculation equations. CAMEL software was used to optimize the load and go bad and compare it with manual calculations.CE 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18, 1.19, 3.8, 3.11, 3.12, 3.21PE1.3 In-depth understanding of specialist bodies of knowledge within the engineering disciplineKnowledge gained in Finite Element Methods and analysis software ANSYS helped to analyze the drop table.CE 2.1, 2.2, 2.10PE1.4 Discernment of knowledge exploitation and research directions within the engineering disciplineSequential switching of zip fastener resources from traditional fossil fuels to renewable efficiency resources is seeming eminent. Parabolic Trough is the future of energy sector in energy deficient countries, deal Pakistan.CE 1.1, 1.2,1.21PE1.5 Knowledge of contextual factors i mpacting the engineering discipline existence conscious of the side effects some of fossil fuels have on the environment, helped us to use the environmental friendly Solar power to generate electricity. It reduces the snow foot print and hence, guarantees a greener and healthier future.CE 1.2, 1.21PE1.6 Understanding of the scope, principles, norms, accountabilities and leaping of contemporary engineering practice in the specific disciplineBeing project leader the responsibility laid on my shoulders to ensure made timely completion of the project. For this I employed Primavera and Microsoft Project software to civilisation the project within given timeline.CE 1.8, 2.7, 3.5, 3.7PE2 ENGINEERING APPLICATION capability PE2.1 Application of established engineering methods to complex engineering problem work outWorking on renewable energy project incited students and industrialists to use this energy source to power their needs. And I visited them to help them design the projects.C E 1.21PE2.2 limpid application of engineering techniques, tools and resourcesI used the VRV system instead of the rudimentary Air Conditioning as it is more than energy efficient and gives more control.I used CAMEL to analyze the manual load calculations and suggest changings in the structure of building.ANSYS was used to analyze the drop table for the drop test.CE 2.2, 2.10, 3.4, 3.21, 3.22PE2.3 Application of systematic engineering synthesis and design processesIn for each(prenominal) one project I followed the engineering design process i.e. Defined the problem, searched for final result and picked a solution and developed it (Solar Power Plant). At the end, I prepared the report for each project including all experiments in systematic order.CE 1.21PE2.4 Application of systematic approaches to the contract and management of engineering projectsI used my management skills and software i.e. Primavera and Microsoft Project to keep track of the progress and wind up it within given time.CE 1.7, 1.8, 2.7, 3.5, 3.7PE3 PROFESSIONAL AND PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES PE3.1 Ethical conduct and professional accountabilityBefore the start of each project I made sure that my team follows the predefined guide lines to ensure professional and honourable conduct. Safety talks before every critical activity helped to reach this goal.CE 1.8, 1.9, 1.20, 2.14PE3.2 Effective oral and written communication in professional and lay domainsI presented my Final Year Project (Solar Trough) in anterior of project supervisor, Chairman of Mechanical Engineering department and an external examiner.CE 1.21PE3.3 Creative innovative and proactive demeanourUsed economical techniques to consider the Concentrated Solar Power technology, which need small absorbing surfaces and titanic reflective surfaces. Absorbing materials are more expensive than the reflective surfaces.CE 1.10PE3.4 Professional use and management of informationI kept track record of all the meetings by writing minutes o f meetings at the end of each meeting. Prepared the project reports using all the experimental and theoretical knowledge.CE 1.5,1.8,1.9,2.7,3.5,3.7PE3.5 Orderly management of self, and professional conductMy leadership skills and professional military position during my final year project helped me to be leader in next two projects as well. Leading project teams more than once groom my leadership skills and helped to enhance my professional conduct.CE 1.7, 2.1, 3.5PE3.6 Effective team social status and team leadershipMy leadership in the projects was effective enough to termination the projects well in time and in good team spirit. I inspired my team members to work through difficult situations and solve issues without macrocosm stressed out.CE 3.5, 2.11,